Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences

Marina Baltikian; Sirpa Kärkkäinen; Jari Kukkonen

doi:10.29333/ejmste/14279

Full Text (PDF)

Marina Baltikian ¹ , Sirpa Kärkkäinen ¹ ^* , Jari Kukkonen ¹

More Detail

¹ School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, FINLAND^* Corresponding Author

Abstract

In recent years, educational reforms have made scientific literacy a major priority because of its increasing importance in today’s dynamic world. Program for international student assessment 2015 evaluated scientific literacy from 72 countries, and Lebanon ranked 65th. Scientific literacy levels among Lebanese secondary school students and gender differences are unknown. This study fills this research gap. A total of 130 students from Lebanon’s private secondary schools were involved in this research. Scientific literacy levels were assessed using an instrument developed by Gormally et al. (2012), who conceptualized nine science competencies contributing to scientific literacy including understanding research designs, creating and interpreting graphs, and solving quantitative problems. Welch’s ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U tests were used to analyze the data. Lebanese secondary school students have very low scientific literacy levels, and no significant difference was observed between genders. We present recommendations for adding desired skills to the curriculum based on a review of the underlying factors.

Keywords

scientific literacy
scientific literacy skills
secondary school students
gender

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article Type: Research Article

EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed, 2024, Volume 20, Issue 3, Article No: em2407

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

Publication date: 01 Mar 2024

Online publication date: 26 Feb 2024

Article Views: 723

Article Downloads: 412

Open Access References How to cite this article

References

AAAS. (1990). Science for all Americans. Oxford University Press.
AAAS. (1993). Science for all Americans online. American Association for the Advancement of Science. www.aaas.org
AAAS. (2010). Vision and change: A call to action. American Association for the Advancement of Science. https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/content_files/VC_report.pdf
Adnan, A., Usman, U., & Bahri, A. (2021). Scientific literacy skills of students: Problem of biology teaching in junior high school in south Sulawesi, Indonesia. International Journal of Instruction, 14(3), 847-860. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14349a
Aikenhead, G. S. (2006). Science education for everyday life: Evidence-based practice. Teachers College Press.
Anaeto, F. C., Asiabaka, C. C., Ani, A. O., Nnadi, F. N., Ugwoke, F. O., Asiabaka, I. P., Anaeto, C. A., & Ihekeronye, N. (2016). The roles of science and technology in national development. Direct Research Journal of Social Science and Educational Studies, 3(3), 38-43.
Andriani, S., Sukarmin, S., & Masykuri, M. (2021). Development of electronic modules (e-modules) based on guided inquiry on temperature and heat materials to improve students’ science literacy. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA [Journal of Science Education Research], 7, 281-287. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v7iSpecialIssue.1234
Arbid, E., Samir, S., & Tairab, H. H. (2020). Science teachers’ views about inclusion of socio-scientific issues in UAE science curriculum and teaching. International Journal of Instruction, 13(2), 733-748. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13250a
Arfiati, U. U. U., & Rachmaniah, M. H. (2019). Analysis of science literacy capabilities through development test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS) integrated internet of things (IOT) technology. Universitas Islam Lamongan [Lamongan Islamic University], 1(2). https://doi.org/10.30736/seaj.v1i2.129
Arikunto, S. (2005). Dasar evaluasi pendidikan [Basics of educational evaluation]. Bumi Aksara.
Arikunto, S. (2013). Dasar evaluasi pendidikan [Basics of educational evaluation]. Bumi Aksara.
Bahous, R., & Nabhani, M. (2008). Improving schools for social justice in Lebanon. Improving Schools, 11, 127-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480208091105
Baker, D., & Taylor, P. C. (1995). The effect of culture on the learning of science in non‐western countries: The results of an integrated research review. International Journal of Science Education, 17(6), 695-704. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069950170602
Baltikian, M. (2021). Prospective teachers’ levels of scientific literacy and climate change awareness [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Lebanese American University.
Blake, C. (2017). Understanding scientific literacy. Concordia University Nebraska.
BouJaoude, S. (2002). Balance of scientific literacy themes in science curricula: The case of Lebanon. International Journal of Science Education, 24(2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690110066494
Bybee, R. W. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy: From purposes to practices. Heinemann.
Bybee, R. W. (2008). Scientific literacy, environmental issues, and PISA 2006: The 2008 Paul F-Brandwein lecture. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 17(6), 566-585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-008-9124-4
Caselman, T. D., Self, A. L., & Self, P. A. (2006). Adolescent attributes contributing to the imposter phenomenon. Journal of Adolescence, 29(3), 395-405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.07.003
Chiappetta, E. L., Fillman, D. A., & Sethna, G. H. (1991). A method to quantify major themes of scientific literacy in science textbooks. Journal of Research Science Teaching, 28(8), 713-725. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660280808
Chih-Yang, C., Shih-Chun, Y., Chia-Sung, Y., & Shun, L. Y. (2012). A survey of science literacy level for senior high school students in Taiwan. In M. Zhu (Eds.), Business, economics, financial sciences, and management, advances in intelligent and soft computing. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27966-9_7
Choi, K., Lee, H., Shin, N., Kim, S. W., & Krajcik, J. (2011). Re-conceptualization of scientific literacy in South Korea for the 21^st century. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(6), 670-697. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20424
Čipková, E., Karolčík, Š., & Scholzová, L. (2020). Are secondary school graduates prepared for the studies of natural sciences?–Evaluation and analysis of the result of scientific literacy levels achieved by secondary school graduates. Research in Science & Technological Education, 38(2), 146-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2019.1599846
Dani, D. (2009). Scientific literacy and purposes for teaching science: A case study of Lebanese private school teachers. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4(3), 289-299. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ884398.pdf
DeBoer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(6), 582-601. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2736(200008)37:6<582::AID-TEA5>3.0.CO;2-L
Diana, S., Rachmatulloh, A., & Rahmawati, E. S. (2015). High school students’ scientific literacy profile based on scientific literacy assessments (SLA) instruments. In Proceeding of Biology Education Conference: Biology, Science, Environmental, and Learning (pp. 285-291). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4941194
Downing, K., Chan, S. W., Downing, W. K., Kwong, T., & Lam, T. F. (2008). Measuring gender differences in cognitive functioning. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 2(1), 4-18. https://doi.org/10.1108/17504970810867124
Feinstein, N. W., Allen, S., & Jenkins, E. (2013). Outside the pipeline: Reimagining science education for nonscientists. Science, 340, 314-317. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230855
Fernández, G. E. A., López-Banet, L., & Ruiz-Vidal, A. (2022). Students’ performance in the scientific skills during secondary education. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(10), em2165. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/12444
Firdaus, L., Ibrohim, I., Lestari, S. R., Masiah, M., Primawati, S. N., & Hunaepi, H. (2023). A quantitative study on the scientific literacy skills of prospective biology teachers. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA [Journal of Science Education Research], 9(1), 80-86. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v9i1.1891
Genc, M. (2014). The project-based learning approach in environmental education. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24(2), 105-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.993169
Ghazvini, S. D., & Khajehpour, M. (2011). Gender differences in factors affecting academic performance of high school students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 1040-1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.236
Glazer, N. (2011). Challenges with graph interpretation: A review of the literature. Studies in Science Education, 47(2), 183-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2011.605307
Gormally, C., Brickman, P., & Lutz, M. (2012). Developing a test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS): Measuring undergraduates’ evaluation of scientific information and arguments. CBE–Life Sciences Education, 11(4), 364-377. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0026
Gurria, A. (2016). PISA 2015 results in focus. PISA in Focus, 67, 1. https://doi.org/10.1787/22260919
Hahn, I., Schöps, K., Rönnebeck, S., Martensen, M., Hansen, S., Saß, S.,Dalehefte, I. M., & Prenzel, M. (2013). Assessing scientific literacy over the lifespan-A description of the NEPS science framework and the test development. Journal for Educational Research Online, 5(2), 110-138. https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2013/8427/pdf/JERO_2013_2_Hahn_et_al_Assessing_scientific_literacy.pdf
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Qadri, M. A., & Suman, R. (2022). Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review. Sustainable Operations and Computers, 3, 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004
Harlen, W. (2010). Principles and big ideas of science education. Ashford Color Press.
Holbrook, J., & Rannikmae, M. (2009). The meaning of scientific literacy. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4(3), 275-288. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ884397.pdf
Hurd, P. D. (1998). Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world. Science Education, 82(3), 407-416. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199806)82:3<407::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-G
Ibe, E. (2013). Effects of constructivist instructional model on scientific literacy levels and interest in science among upper basic level students [Unpublished PhD thesis]. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Ibe, E., Nwosu, A. A., Obi, C. N., & Nwoye, M. N. (2016). Gender and levels of attainment of scientific literacy among students under constructivist instructional model. International Journal of Engineering Science & Research Technology, 5(7), 81-90.
Ibrahim, M. (2000). Pembelajaran kooperatif [Cooperative learning]. UNESA University Press.
Ige U., & Arowolo, J. (2003). Effects of hypothetico-deductive approach on JS 3 students’ achievement in integrated science. Journal of Science Teacher Association of Nigeria, 38, 39-45.
Jacobsen, T., Bobish, G., Bernnard, D., Bullis, D., Hecker, J., Holden, I., Hosier, A., Jacobson, T., & Loney, T. (2014). The information literacy user’s guide: An open, online textbook. Open Textbook Library.
Jarrar, S. A., Mikati, J. F., & Massialas, B. G. (1988). World education encyclopedia. Facts on File Publications.
Julien, H., & Barker, S. (2009). How high-school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information literacy skills development. Library & Information Science Research, 31(1), 12-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008
Kinslow, A. T., Sadler, T. D., & Nguyen, H. T. (2019). Socio-scientific reasoning and environmental literacy in a field-based ecology class. Environmental Education Research, 25(3), 388-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2018.1442418
Koballa, T., Kemp, A., & Evans, R. (1997). The spectrum of scientific literacy: An in-depth look at what it means to be scientifically literate. The Science Teacher, 64(7), 27-31.
Kutner, M., Greenberg, E., Jin, Y., Boyle, B., Hsu. Y., & Dunleavy, E. (2007). Literacy in everyday life: Results from the 2003 national assessment of adult literacy (NCES 2007-480). National Center for Education Statistics.
Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84(1), 71-94. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(200001)84:13.0.CO;2-C
Leonard, W. H., Speziale, B. J., & Penick, J. E. (2001). Performance assessment of a standards-based high school biology curriculum. The American Biology Teacher, 63(5), 310-316. https://doi.org/10.2307/4451117
Liliana, C., & Lavinia, H. (2011). Gender differences in metacognitive skills. A study of the 8^th grade pupils in Romania. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 396-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.255
Linder, C., Östman, L., & Wickman, P. O. (2007, May). Promoting scientific literacy: Science education research in transaction [Paper presentation]. The Linnaeus Tercentenary Symposium.
Madu, B. C. (2004). Effects of constructivist-based instructional model on students’ conceptual change and retention in physics. University of Nigeria.
Matthews, M. R. (2012). Time for science education: How teaching the history and philosophy of pendulum motion can contribute to science literacy. Springer.
Merta, I. W., Artayasa, I. P., Kusmiyati, K., Lestari, N., & Setiadi, D. (2020). Profil literasi sains dan model pembelajaran dapat meningkatkan kemampuan literasi sains [Scientific literacy profiles and learning models can improve scientific literacy abilities]. Jurnal PIJAR MIPA [PIJAR MIPA Journal], 15(3), 223-228. https://doi.org/10.29303/jpm.v15i3.1889
Miller, J. (2006). Civic scientific literacy in Europe and the United States [Paper presentation]. The Annual Meeting of the World Association for Public Opinion Research.
Miller, J. D. (1998). The measurement of civic scientific literacy. Public Understanding of Science, 7(3), 203. https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/7/3/001
Mukti, W. R., Yuliskurniawati, I. D., Noviyanti, N. I., Mahanal, S., & Zubaidah, S. (2019). A survey of high school students’ scientific literacy skills in different gender. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1241, 012043. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1241/1/012043
Mun, K., Shin, N., Lee, H., Kim, S.-W., Choi, K., Choi, S. Y., & Krajcik, J. S. (2015). Korean secondary students’ perception of scientific literacy as global citizens: Using global scientific literacy questionnaire. International Journal of Science Education, 37(11), 1739-1766. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1045956
Mutmainah, M., Taruh, E., Abbas, N., & Umar, M. K. (2019). The influence of blended learning-based guided inquiry learning model and self-efficacy on students’ scientific literacy. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(6). https://oapub.org/edu/ index.php/ejes/article/viewFile/2640/5277
Naikoo, A. A., Thakur, S. S., Guroo, T. A., & Lone, A. A. (2018). Development of society under the modern technology-a review. Scholedge International Journal of Business Policy & Governance, 5(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.19085/journal.sijbpg050101
National Center for Educational Research and Development (NCERD). (1995). Lebanese national curriculum. Beirut.
Norris, S. P., & Phillips, L. M. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87(2), 224-240. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10066
NRC. (1996). National science education standards. National Academic Press.
NRC. (2003). BIO2010: Transforming undergraduate education for future research biologists. National Academies Press.
Nwagbo, C. (2006). Effects of two teaching methods on the achievement in and attitude to biology of students of different levels of scientific literacy. International Journal of Educational Research, 45, 216-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.11.004
Odegaard, M., Haug, B., Mork, S., & Sorvik, G. O. (2015). Budding science and literacy. A classroom video study of the challenges and support in an integrated inquiry and literacy teaching model. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 167, 274-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.674
OECD. (2003). PISA 2003 assessment framework–Mathematics, reading, science and problem-solving knowledge and skills. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/education/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/33694881.pdf
OECD. (2009). Equally prepared for life? How 15-year-old boys and girls perform in school. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/
OECD. (2016). PISA 2015: Assessment and analytical framework–Key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2017). The pursuit of gender equality: An uphill battle. OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2018). PISA 2015 assessment and analytical framework–Science, reading, mathematic, financial literacy and collaborative problem-solving. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264281820-en
OECD. (2023a). PISA 2022 results (volume II): Learning during–and from–disruption. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
OECD. (2023b). “What is PISA?”. In PISA 2022 results (volume II): Learning during–and from–disruption. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/cf6e5a77-en
Ogan-Bekiroglu, F. (2007). To what degree do currently used physics textbooks meet the expectations? Journal of Science Teacher Education, 18, 599-628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-007-9045-8
PISA. (2018). National report-CERD 2018. Program for International Students Assessment. https://www.crdp.org/sites/default/files/crdpcontent/files/201901291059523.pdf
Pratiwi, M. K., Kuntjoro, S., Sunarti, T., & Budiyanto, M. (2023). TOSLS cognitive instrument to measure students’ scientific literacy abilities. International Journal of Recent Educational Research, 4(6), 819-826. https://doi.org/10.46245/ijorer.v4i6.432
Propsom, P. M., Tobin, W. M., & Roberts, J. R. (2023). Test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS) indicates limited scientific thinking gains as a result of science and mathematics general education. Interdisciplinary Faculty Scholarship. https://scholarship.depauw.edu/interdisciplinary_facpubs/1
Ramnarain, U. D., & Chanetsa, T. (2016). An analysis of South African grade 9 natural sciences textbooks for their representation of nature of science. International Journal of Science Education, 38, 922-933. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2016.1167985
Rodriguez, A. J., Mark, S., & Nazar, C. R. (2022). Gazing inward in support of critical scientific literacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 33(2), 125-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2021.2009973
Rodzalan, S. A., & Saat, M. M. (2015). The perception of critical thinking and problem solving skill among Malaysian undergraduate students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172, 725-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.425
Rundgren, C. J., Rundgren, S. N. C., Tseng, Y.H., Lin, P. L., & Chang, C. Y. (2012). Are you SLiM? Developing an instrument for civic scientific literacy measurement (SLiM) based on media coverage. Public Understanding of Science, 21(6), 759-773. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662510377562
Samuels, M. L., Witmer, J. A., & Schaffner, A. A. (2016). Statistics for the life sciences. Pearson.
Saraswati, Y., Indana, S., & Sudibyo, E. (2021). Science literacy profile of junior high school students based on knowledge, competences, cognitive, and context aspects. International Journal of Recent Educational Research, 2(3), 329-341. https://doi.org/10.46245/ijorer.v2i3.118
Schleicher, A. (2009). Securing quality and equity in education: Lessons from PISA. Prospects, 39(3), 251-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-009-9126-x
Segarra, V. A., Hughes, N. M., Ackerman, K. M., Grider, M. H., Lyda, T., & Vigueira, P. A. (2018). Student performance on the test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS) does not change with assignment of a low-stakes grade. BMC Research Notes, 11, 422. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3545-9
Shahzadi, I., & Nasreen, A. (2020). Assessing scientific literacy levels among secondary school science students of District Lahore. Bulletin of Education and Research, 42(3), 1-21. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1291080.pdf
Shapin, S. (1998). The scientific revolution. University of Chicago Press.
Sharon, A. J., & Baram‐Tsabari, A. (2020). Can science literacy help individuals identify misinformation in everyday life? Science Education, 104(5), 873-894. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21581
Solli, A. (2021). Appeals to science: Recirculation of online claims in socio-scientific reasoning. Research in Science Education, 51, 983-1013. https://doi.org/10.10007/s11165-019-09878-w
UNESCO. (1999). Science for the twenty-first century. A new commitment. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000122938
UNESCO. (2021). Scientific literacy: An imperative for a complex world. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://unes doc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377448
Vasconcelos, C., Cardoso, A., & Vasconcelos, M. L. (2018). Socio-scientific issues and scientific literacy. In Proceedings of the ICERI 2018 (pp. 7500-7505). IATED. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2018.0034
Wahab, M. N. N. D., Wasis, W., & Yuliani, Y. (2023). Profile of junior high school students’ scientific literacy. International Journal of Recent Educational Research, 4(2), 176-187. https://doi.org/10.46245/ijorer.v4i2.292
Wilson, C. D., Taylor, J. A., Kowalski, S. M., & Carlson, J. (2010). The relative effects and equity of inquiry-based and commonplace science teaching on students’ knowledge, reasoning, and argumentation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(3), 276-301. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20329
Wu, Y., & Tsai, C. (2011). High school students’ informal reasoning regarding a socio-scientific issue, with relation to scientific epistemological beliefs and cognitive structures. International Journal of Science Education, 33(3), 371-400. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690903505661
Yacoubian, H. A., Al-Khatib, L., & Mardirossian, T. (2017). Analysis of the image of scientists portrayed in the Lebanese national science textbooks. Science & Education, 26, 513-528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-017-9908-0
Zembylas, M. (2002). The global, the local, and the science curriculum: A struggle for balance in Cyprus. International Journal of Science Education, 24(5), 499-520. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690110095267

How to cite this article

APA

Baltikian, M., Kärkkäinen, S., & Kukkonen, J. (2024). Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 20(3), em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

Vancouver

Baltikian M, Kärkkäinen S, Kukkonen J. Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2024;20(3):em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

AMA

Baltikian M, Kärkkäinen S, Kukkonen J. Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2024;20(3), em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

Chicago

Baltikian, Marina, Sirpa Kärkkäinen, and Jari Kukkonen. "Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 2024 20 no. 3 (2024): em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

Harvard

Baltikian, M., Kärkkäinen, S., and Kukkonen, J. (2024). Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 20(3), em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279

MLA

Baltikian, Marina et al. "Assessment of scientific literacy levels among secondary school students in Lebanon: Exploring gender-based differences". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, vol. 20, no. 3, 2024, em2407. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/14279