Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals

Pavol Prokop

doi:10.29333/ejmste/83677

Full Text (PDF)

Pavol Prokop ¹ ² ^*

More Detail

¹ Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Trnava University, Priemyselná, Trnava, SLOVAKIA
² Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta, Bratislava, SLOVAKIA
^* Corresponding Author

Abstract

Certain animals have represented a danger to humans in terms of a predation and pathogen threat over our evolutionary history. It is therefore adaptive for people to respond to a potential threat faster than to harmless events. Using simple choice tasks, the reaction time of children to predators, disease carriers and aposematically coloured animals were investigated. Children reacted the fastest to predators, followed by disease carriers and finally aposematically coloured animals. Furthermore, children manifested the highest accuracy when distinguishing predators from non-predators, followed by disease carriers and harmless animals, with the most errors occurring when identifying the aposematically coloured from non-aposematically coloured animals. Importantly, children more vulnerable to infectious diseases responded to disease carriers faster than healthier children. These results suggest that children are skilled in distinguishing potential danger from non-danger and that the behavioural immune system influences reaction times in visual contact with the pathogen threat.

Keywords

animals
behavioural immune system
predators

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article Type: Research Article

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed, 2018 - Volume 14 Issue 4, pp. 1397-1406

Publication date: 21 Jan 2018

Article Views: 467

Article Downloads: 144

Open Access References How to cite this article

References

Allen, M. (2015). Preschool children’s taxonomic knowledge of animal species. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 52(1), 107–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21191.
Almeida, A., Vasconcelos, C., & Strecht-Ribeiro, O. (2014). Attitudes toward animals: a study of Portuguese children. Anthrozoös, 27(2), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303714X13903827487403.
Arrindell, W.A., Eisemann, M., Richter, J., Oei, T.P., Caballo, V.E., van der Ende, J., Sanavio, E., Bgés, N., Feldman, L., Torres, B., Sica, C., Iwawaki, S., Edelmann, R.J., Crozier, W.R., Furnham, A., & Hudson, B.L. (2003). Phobic anxiety in 11 nations: Part I: Dimensional constancy of the five-factor model. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 41(4), 461–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00047-5.
Barrett, H. C. (2005). Adaptations to predators and prey. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 200 – 223). New York: Wiley.
Barrett, H. C., & Broesch, J. (2012). Prepared social learning about dangerous animals in children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(5), 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.01.003.
Baumholtz, M. A., Parish, L. C., Witkowski, J. A., & Nutting, W. B. (1997). The medical importance of cockroaches. Internationa Journal of Dermatology, 36(2), 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-4362.1997.00077.x.
Bennett‐Levy, J., & Marteau, T. (1984). Fear of animals: What is prepared? British Journal of Psychology, 75(1), 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1984.tb02787.x.
Bjerke, T., Østdahl, T., & Kleiven, J. (2003). Attitudes and activities related to urban wildlife: pet owners and nonowners. Anthrozoös, 16(3), 252–262. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279303786992125.
Black, S. H., Shepard, M., & Allen, M. M. (2001). Endangered invertebrates: the case for greater attention to invertebrate conservation. Endanger. Species UPDATE, 18, 42–50.
Bohlin, T., Gamberale-Stille, G., Merilaita, S., Exnerová, A., Štys, P., & Tullberg, B. (2012). The detectability of the colour pattern in the aposematic ﬁrebug, Pyrrhocoris apterus: an image-based experiment with human ‘predators’. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 105(4), 806–816. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01834.x.
Borgi, M., & Cirulli, F. (2015). Attitudes toward animals among kindergarten children: Species preferences. Anthrozoös, 28(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279315X14129350721939.
Braund, M. (1991). Children’s ideas in classifying animals. Journal of Biological Education, 25(2), 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1991.9655186.
Breuer, G. B., Schlegel, J., Kauf, P., & Rupf, R. (2015). The importance of being colorful and able to fly: Interpretation and implications of children’s statements on selected insects and other invertebrates. International Journal of Science Education, 37(16), 2664–2687. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1099171.
Cardoso, P., Erwin, T. L., Borges, P. A. V., & New, T. R. (2011). The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them. Biological Conservation, 144(11), 2647–2655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.024.
Case, A., & Paxson, C. (2005). Sex differences in morbidity and mortality. Demography, 42(2), 189–214. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2005.0011.
Davey, G. C. L. (1994). The “disgusting” spider: the role of disease and illness in the perpetuation of fear of spiders. Society & Animals, 2(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853094X00045.
Driscoll, J. W. (1995). Attitudes toward animals: species ratings. Society & Animals, 3(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853095X00125.
Duncan, L. A., Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2009). Perceived vulnerability to disease: Development and validation of a 15-item self-report instrument. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(6), 541–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.001.
Faulkner, J., Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Duncan, L. A. (2004). Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 7(4), 333–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430204046142.
Gerdes, A. B. M., Uhl, G., & Alpers, G. W. (2009). Spiders are special: fear and disgust evoked by pictures of arthropods. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30(1), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.08.005.
Gunnthorsdottir, A. (2001). Physical attractiveness of an animal species as a decision factor for its preservation. Anthrozoös, 14(4), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279301786999355.
Hart, B. L. (1988). Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, 12(2), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(88)80004-6.
Hart, B. L. (2011). Behavioural defences in animals against pathogens and parasites: parallels with the pillars of medicine in humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B., 366(1583), 3406–3417. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0092.
Hart, D., & Sussman R. W. (2009). Man the hunted: primates, predators, and human evolution. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
Jimenez, J. N., & Lindemann-Matthies, P. (2015). Public knowledge of, and attitudes to, frogs in Colombia. Anthrozoös, 28(2), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2015.11435405.
Johnson, D. D., Blumstein, D. T., Fowler, J. H., & Haselton, M. G. (2013). The evolution of error: Error management, cognitive constraints, and adaptive decision-making biases. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(8), 474–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2013.05.014.
Kellert, S. R. (1993). Values and perceptions of invertebrates. Conservation Biology, 7(4), 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.740845.x.
Knight, A. J. (2008). “Bats, snakes and spiders, Oh my!” How aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and other concepts predict support for species protection. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(1), 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.10.001.
Kubiatko, M. (2012). Kindergarten childrens perception of animals focusing on the look and fear of animals. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12(4), 3181–3186.
Lima, S. L., & Dill, L. M. (1990). Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 68(4), 619–640. https://doi.org/10.1139/z90-092.
Lindemann‐Matthies, P. (2005). ‘Loveable’mammals and ‘lifeless’ plants: how children’s interest in common local organisms can be enhanced through observation of nature. International Journal of Science Education, 27(6), 655–677. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690500038116.
LoBue, V., & DeLoache, J. S. (2008). Detecting the snake in the grass. Attention to fear-relevant stimuli by adults and young children. Psychological Science, 19(3), 284–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02081.x.
LoBue, V., & Rakison, D. H. (2013). What we fear most: A developmental advantage for threat-relevant stimuli. Dev. Rev., 33(4), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2013.07.005.
LoBue, V., Rakison, D. H., & DeLoache, J. S. (2010). Threat perception across the life span: Evidence for multiple converging pathways. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 375–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410388801.
Lorenz, A. R., Libarkin, J. C., & Ording, G. J. (2014). Disgust in response to some arthropods aligns with disgust provoked by pathogens. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2, 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2014.09.012.
Masataka, N., Hayakawa, S., & Kawai, N. (2010). Human young children as well as adults demonstrate ‘superior’rapid snake detection when typical striking posture is displayed by the snake. PLoS One, 5, e15122. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015122.
Michalski, R. L., & Shackelford, T. K. (2010). Evolutionary personality psychology: Reconciling human nature and individual differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 509–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.027.
Miller, S. L., & Maner, J. K. (2011). Sick body, vigilant mind: The biological immune system activates the behavioral immune system. Psychological Science, 22(12), 1467–1471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611420166.
Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 130(3), 466–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466.
Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2003). Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27(2), 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910408854.
Park, J. H., Schaller, M., & Crandall, C. S. (2007). Pathogen-avoidance mechanisms and the stigmatization of obese people. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(6), 410–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.008.
Penkunas, M. J., & Coss, R. G. (2013). Rapid detection of visually provocative animals by preschool children and adults. Journal of Experimental Children Psychology, 114(4), 522–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.10.001.
Prokop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2010a). Perceived body condition is associated with fear of a large carnivore predator in humans. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 47(6), 417–425. https://doi.org/10.5735/086.047.0606.
Prokop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2010b). The association between disgust, danger and fear of macroparasites and human behaviour. Acta Ethologica, 13(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-010-0075-4.
Prokop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2013a). Self-protection versus disease avoidance: The perceived physical condition is associated with fear of predators in humans. Journal of Individual Differences, 34(1), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000092.
Prokop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2013b). Does colour matter? The influence of animal warning colouration in human emotions and willingness to protect them. Animal Conservation,16(4), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12014.
Prokop, P., & Fančovičová, J. (2017). Animals in dangerous postures enhance learning, but decrease willingness to protect animals. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science Technology Education, 13(9), 6069–6077. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.01000a.
Prokop, P., & Fedor, P. (2013). The effects of parasites on human behaviour: An evolutionary perspective. Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, 5(5), 46–64.
Prokop, P., & Jančovičová, M. (2013). Disgust sensitivity and gender differences: an initial test of the parental investment hypothesis. Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, 7(7), 40–48.
Prokop, P., & Kubiatko, M. (2014). Perceived vulnerability to disease predicts environmental attitudes. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technological Education, 10(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2014.1017a.
Prokop, P., & Tunnicliffe, S.D. (2010). Effects of keeping pets at home on children’s attitudes toward popular and unpopular animals. Anthrozoös, 23(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710X12627079939107.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J., & Fedor, P. (2010c). Health is associated with anti¬parasite behavior and fear of disease¬relevant animals in humans. Ecological Psychology, 22(3), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.2010.496676.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J., & Krajčovičová, A. (2016). Alternative conceptions about micro-organisms are influenced by experiences with disease in children. Journal of Biological Education, 50(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2014.1002521.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J., & Kubiatko, M. (2009a). Vampires are still alive: Slovakian students’ attitudes toward bats. Anthrozoös, 22(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303708X390446.
Prokop, P., Özel, M., & Usak, M. (2009b). Cross-cultural comparison of student attitudes toward snakes. Society & Animals, 17(3), 224–240. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853009X445398.
Prokop, P., Tolarovičová, A., Camerik, A., & Peterková, V. (2010d). High school students’ attitudes towards spiders: A cross cultural comparison. International Journal of Science Education, 32(12), 1665–1688. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690903253908.
Prokop, P., Usak, M., & Fančovičová, J. (2010a). Health and the avoidance of macroparasites: A preliminary cross-cultural study. Journal of Ethology, 28(2), 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-009-0195-3.
Prokop, P., Usak, M., & Fančovičová, J. (2010b). Risk of parasite transmission influences perceived vulnerability to disease and perceived danger of disease-relevant animals. Behavioural Processes, 85(1), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2010.06.006.
Réale, D., Dingemanse, N. J., Kazem, A. J. N., & Wright, J. (2010). Evolutionary and ecological approaches to the study of personality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 365(1560), 3937–3946. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0222.
Røskaft, E., Bjerke, T., Kaltenborn, B. P., Linnell, J. D. C., & Andersen, R. (2003). Patterns of self-reported fear towards large carnivores among the Norwegian public. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24(3), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(03)00011-4.
Shepardson, D. P. (2002). Bugs, butterflies, and spiders: Children’s understandings about insects. International Journal of Science Education, 24(6), 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690110074765.
Schaller, M. (2006). Parasites, behavioral defenses, and the social psychological mechanisms through which cultures are evoked. Psychological Inquiry, 17(2), 96–101.
Schaller, M., Murray, D. R., & Bangerter, A. (2015). Implications of the behavioural immune system for social behaviour and human health in the modern world. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B., 370(1669), 20140105. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0105.
Schlegel, J., & Rupf, R. 2010. Attitudes towards potential animal flagship species in nature conservation: A survey among students of different educational institutions. Journal for Nature Conservation, 18(4), 278–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2009.12.002.
Sih, A., Cote, J., Evans, M., Fogarty, S., & Pruitt, J. N. (2012). Ecological implications of behavioural syndromes. Ecology Letters, 15(3), 278–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01731.x.
Smith, B. R., & Blumstein, D. T. (2008). Fitness consequences of personality: a meta-analysis. Behavioral Ecology, 19(2), 448–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arm144.
Souchet, J., & Aubret, F. (2016). Revisiting the fear of snakes in children: the role of aposematic signalling. Scientific Reports, 6, 37619. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep37619.
Štefaniková, S., & Prokop, P. (2015). Do we believe pictures more or spoken words? How specific information affects how students learn about animals. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 11(4), 725–733. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1380a.
Tabachnick, W. J. (1991). Evolutionary genetics and arthropod-borne disease: the yellow fever mosquito. American Entomologist, 37(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/ae/37.1.14.
Tollenaere, C., Rahalison, L., Ranjalahy, M., Duplantier, J.M., Rahelinirina, S., Telfer, S., & Brouat, C. (2010). Susceptibility to Yersinia pestis experimental infection in wild Rattus rattus, reservoir of plague in Madagascar. EcoHealth, 7(2), 242–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-010-0312-3.
Treves, A., & Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores. Journal of Human Evolution, 36(3), 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1998.0268.
Vallin, A., Jakobsson, S., Lind, J., & Wiklund, C. (2005). Prey survival by predator intimidation: an experimental study of peacock butterfly defence against blue tits. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 272(1569), 1203–1207. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.3034.
Yorzinski, J. L., Penkunas, M. J., Platt, M. L., & Coss, R. G. (2014). Dangerous animals capture and maintain attention in humans. Evolutionary Psychology, 12(3), 534–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491401200304.

How to cite this article

Vancouver

Prokop P. Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2018;14(4):1397-406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

APA

Prokop, P. (2018). Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(4), 1397-1406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

AMA

Prokop P. Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2018;14(4), 1397-1406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

Chicago

Prokop, Pavol. "Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 2018 14 no. 4 (2018): 1397-1406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

Harvard

Prokop, P. (2018). Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(4), pp. 1397-1406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677

MLA

Prokop, Pavol "Natural Selection Influences the Reactions of Children to Potentially Dangerous Animals". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, vol. 14, no. 4, 2018, pp. 1397-1406. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/83677